Part - III

In the first part of this narrative on the early years of the Indian space programme, we talked about the immediate responses to Dr Vikram Sarabhai’s death and the nature of discussions that took place in the Prime Minister’s Office regarding the future of the space programme.

While the first part was based on the Prime Minister’s Secretariat (PMS) file no.17/39/72 PMS (Vol. I), the second part of this narrative, based on Vol-II of this file and marked as Department of Atomic Energy (Correspondence with PMO/PMS), discussed the factors that led to Prof Satish Dhawan’s selection as the first chairman of the newly-constituted Space Commission. 

The third and final part of this narrative examines a key section of this same file which pertains to the composition of the Space Commission. The records in reference here are the Note for Cabinet prepared by T. Swaminathan, Cabinet Secretary (dated 24-5-1972) regarding Organisation of the Space Commission and the Department of Space, and the Draft Resolution in Annexure ‘A’ of the Note. The Note (and Annexure) is on Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s meeting with officials of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and Dr M.G.K Menon, and the subsequent meeting held between P.N. Haksar, Menon and Prof Satish Dhawan to decide on implementing the separation of space research organisation from the AEC. 

This article is divided into two parts: the first provides a verbatim text of the Cabinet Note and its analysis, and the second part analyses the reproduced text of the Draft Resolution.                           

                                                            I

(a) Note for Cabinet, from Cabinet Secretariat, Department of Cabinet Affairs -
Setting up of the Space Commission and Department of Space, and related matters

The note makes the case for the creation of a Space Commission and for this purpose details the functioning of the space programme under the AEC and why it needs a separate existence.

Verbatim text of Cabinet Note

1. “Space Science and Technology have developed in a spectacular manner over the past decade and a half. This area covers the exploration and utilisation of space from the upper regions of the earth’s atmosphere into the cosmos using balloons, sounding rockets, satellites and deep space probes. So far, India has conducted experiments using balloons and sounding rockets. It is planned to develop indigenous capability, in the course of time, to place satellites in orbit around the earth. 

Satellites are currently being used for a variety of purposes in the fields of communications, meteorology, survey of earth’s resources and ecology, defence, navigation and geodesy, as well as for scientific experiments relating to the earth, its environment and the cosmos. It is increasingly clear that the use of satellites will radically transform the scene with regard to communications and television; the later can be used as a powerful audio-visual medium in the areas of education, agriculture, health and family planning, weather, etc.

2. Rockets are needed to launch satellites and deep space probes; powerful rocket systems employing solid as well as liquid fuels are required for these purposes. The development of this technology is of great significance from the point of view of missiles in defence. Another important area of technology that is involved in electronics in its various aspects of control and guidance, on-board computers, communication systems, data links, telemetry and tele-command, etc. 

For applications, it is essential to use materials with great strength, which can withstand extremely high and extremely low temperatures, acceleration and vibration shocks, etc. Components and assemblies have to be miniaturised to a significant extent to reduce weight and volume, and must be capable of fault-free operation under extreme conditions and for long periods. In these respects, the development of Space Technology has a major impact on many areas of industrial production and technology. 

3. So far, the Indian Space Science and Technology programmes have been developed under the aegis of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Atomic Energy. Early work involved balloon launchings from several locations in India, notably Hyderabad, as also satellite tracking from Nainital. In November 1963, the first sounding rocket firings were conducted close to the geomagnetic equator from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), near Trivandrum. 

Since then, many centres and activities have developed; the major units and locations are shown in the attached map. Rocket firings from TERLS, which is an international rocket launching facility under UN auspices, have been carried out by several nations; collaboration programmes have been carried out by India with USSR, USA UK, France, West Germany and Japan. Major assistance has been received from USSR, USA and France. In the area of space technology, the Space Science and Technology Centre (SSTC) has been developed at Veli, adjacent to Thumba. In the same area, there is a Rocket Fabrication Facility (RFF) and a Rocket Propellant Plant (RPP). 

A Propellant Fuel complex (PFC) is to be put up. Over 30,000 acres of land have been acquired at Sriharikota, (SHAR), in the Nellore District of Andhra Pradesh, on the east coast of India just north of Madras. This is primarily to be used as a proving range for testing out large rocket systems under development, as well as for launching satellites; for satellite launching the east coast location has technology advantages. A number of major test facilities and production plants are planned to be set up at SHAR. Additionally, it is proposed that SHAR will be a national facility which can also be made use of by the Defence Agencies in the country. 

Another major area is of Space applications. In this, two significant experiments are Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, (SITE), and the programme for analysing pictures taken by the Earth Resources Technological Satellite, (ERTS), for evaluation of the earth’s resources. SITE is to be in operation by 1975 and the ERTS analysis from mid-1972. 

4. Activities in Space Science and Technology have been carried out by the various units described in para 3 operating within a comprehensive organisation referred to as the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). ISRO is an autonomous body wholly financed by the Government of India. ISRO receives financial support from the Department of Atomic Energy through the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, which is one of the aided institutions supported by the DAE. 

Indeed, the Physical Research Laboratory can be regarded as the cradle of the space research programme in its present form. The late Dr Vikram Sarabhai, as Director of the Physical Research Laboratory, found it convenient to develop the space programme using the same norms and culture prevailing in the PRL. It is also his view that, certainly until it had acquired viability, ISRO should grow as an autonomous unit unfettered by governmental restrictions. 

Capital grants, are however, not made to ISRO; instead, buildings involving capital expenditure, are constructed by the Government of India through the agency of the Architecture and Civil Engineering Division of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and remain the property of the Government; also capital equipment costing more than Rs.10 lakhs, though purchased by ISRO from grants made to it by the DPAE, remain the property of the Government. 

5. During the last few years, the activities of both areas under the purview of the Atomic Energy Commission, Atomic Energy and Space, have expanded tremendously. It is obvious that both these areas will have to expand substantially in the years to come. Both are areas of advanced technology and require a great deal of attention to planning and technical quality in view of the rapid technological changes taking place. 

The necessity to have these two activities organised separately to allow each one of them full freedom of growth has been felt for some time. The stage of development of activities in atomic energy and space science and technology are such that a separation of the two activities could also be considered timely. It was for these reasons that on the sad demise of the late Dr Vikram A. Sarabhai in December 1971, the Government decided that the possibility of such separate organisations could be gone into. 

On the basis of this decision, Shri H.N. Sethna took over as Chairman of the AEC and Secretary to the Government of India with specific responsibilities for atomic energy, and Prof. M.G.K. Menon as Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation on  January 22, 1972. The latter appointment was meant to be an interim measure, since Prof. Menon already holds the post of Chairman, Electronics Commission and Secretary to the GoI, Department of Electronics, in addition to being Director, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. It was then visualised that a new structure would have to be worked out for the management and operation of the Indian Space Programme. It is this matter which is dealt with in the rest of this note. 

6. It is now proposed to set up a Space Commission on lines similar to the Atomic Energy Commission and the Electronics Commission, and correspondingly a Department of Space on lines similar to the DAE and DoE. Since the space programmes have so far come under the DAE, and they are now to be handled as a separate entity, it is considered appropriate that the set up envisaged in the Space Commission and the Department of Space should have, for their functioning, powers similar to those which have been given to the AEC and DAE; and that the Prime Minister will be the Minister in charge of the Department of Space. 

It will be noticed that the Space Commission will consist of not less than four and not more than seven members. Its Chairman will be Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space, and one of its members will be the Member for Finance. Members of the Space Commission will be appointed in consultation with the Chairman of the Commission. The membership of the Commission will be non-representational in terms of Deptt/Offices. 

After careful consideration, it has been decided that the Headquarters of the Department of Space and the Space Commission will be located, at any rate, for the time being, at Bangalore which is well-connected by road, rail and air with all the different centres where work connected with space research is or will be done – viz, Trivandrum, Sriharikota, Hyderabad, Ootacamund, Bombay, Ahmedabad and Gulmarg – as also with New Delhi. At Bangalore is also available a strong back-up from the Aircraft, Electronics, Communications, Machine tools industries as also the facilities of several major research establishments of relevant to Aero-Space research and Technology.

7. Prof. S. Dhawan, Director of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, has been selected for appointment as Chairman, Space Commission and Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space. He has communicated his willingness to accept these appointments. However, he wishes to continue his associations with the IISC as its resident Head. It may be pointed out that earlier Government had agreed to Prof. M.G.K. Menon accepting the position of Chairman, Electronics Commission, and Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Electronics, on a nominal salary of Rs. 1/- per month for services rendered to the Government, whilst continuing to be resident Head (as Director) of the TIFR. 

Dr. Dhawan’s appointment may similarly be approved as Chairman, Space Commission and Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space, for which he may be paid a nominal salary of Rs 1/- per month so long as he continues to be Director of IISC (from which institution he will draw his salary). It is considered appropriate that the status and privileges (including journey and halting allowances, etc. for travel, both internal and abroad) in Dr. Dhawan’s case would be the same as those of the Chairman, AEC. This may be approved. 

8. The expenditure on various space projects is at present covered by grants approved by Parliament in the Department of Atomic Energy under Revenue and Capital heads. Under the new arrangement, funds will have to be provided for the functioning of the Space Commission and the Department of Space as well as for expenditure on Revenue and Capital outlays on the space programmes. The necessary arrangements will be worked out in consultation with the Ministry of Finance. 

9. Approval of the Cabinet is solicited for: 

(i) The constitution of the Space Commission as indicated above, and the issue of Government Resolution as at Annexure ‘A’. 

(ii) The setting up of the Department of Space;

(iii) The appointment of Dr. S. Dhawan as Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space and Chairman, Space Commission, while continuing to hold his current position as Director, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore;

(iv) The location of the Headquarters of the Department of Space and the Space Commission at Bangalore as an immediate measure.” 

A subsequent note from Prime Minister’s Secretariat dated 12-6-1972 (subsequently issued as Office Memorandum on 16 June 1972 by Cabinet Secretariat) states thus: 

The Prime Minister has approved the following composition of the Space Commission as proposed by the Secretary, Department of Space and Chairman, Space Commission:-

1. Shri P.N. Haksar, Principal Secretary to the PM – Member; 

2. 2. Dr I.G. Patel – Member (Finance); 

3. 3. Prof. M.G.K.Menon – Member; 

4. 4. Dr Brahm Prakash, Director, Space Technology Centre – Member. 

(b) Carving out one national mission from another: vision behind the mission

This Cabinet Note recommending the establishment of the Space Commission is an eye-opener on how the then-nascent space programme evolved in its initial years under the tutelage of the AEC and how the leadership harnessed the vision of the founding fathers, including Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, to carve out an independent identity for the programme. Both the political and scientific leadership also deserve the credit for conceiving and successfully implementing the ‘Commission’ model, which, as G Madhavan Nair remarked in Episode 2 of The Long Conversation, was the fundamental reason for the success of these national missions. 

The note also provides insights into the functioning of the space programme under the DAE and sheds light on some dimensions not much in discussion hitherto. 

The defence dimension: In the first part of this series, there was a reference to Mrs Gandhi’s instruction to M.G.K. Menon to consult B. Nag Chaudhuri on the prospects of harnessing the space programme for the country’s defence needs. The above Cabinet Note reaffirms this objective by explicitly stating that the “development of (rocket) technology is of great significance from the point of view of missiles in defence. The note also proposes that SHAR be made a national facility to be made used by the defence agencies in the country as well. 

While it is well known that the defence research and development programmes have benefitted from the technologies developed by the space and nuclear programmes, the note negates the assertion in various quarters, including by G. Madhavan Nair in Episode 5 of The Long Conversation, that ISRO had made no technological contribution to the Defence Research and Development Organisation’s (DRDO) missile development programme. 

While ISRO insiders like Dr Nair affirm attest that ISRO maintained a safe distance from the DRDO’s programmes, which, he claimed, preceded the space agency, it is natural that the political leadership of the time could have seen all national missions as contributing to overall national interests of the country, which includes its defence and national security.

The 1 Re salary: The saga of L.K Jha driving down to California to hand over the prime minister’s request to Dhawan to assume charge as the first chairman of the Space Commission and how Dhawan requested for retaining his directorship of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) was narrated earlier in this series. Held high in the folklore is the fact that Dhawan sought only a token remuneration of Rs 1/- per month as salary for the chairman. 

However, it is evident from the Note that this was the outcome of a technicality and based on a precedent set by M.G.K. Menon, who assumed the chairmanship of the Electronics Commission while continuing to be director of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). Considering that Dhawan will continue to draw a salary from IISc while holding the fort as its director, it was logical that only a token payment be received in the form of salary as chairman of the Commission. Nonetheless, the very fact that both renowned scientists had agreed to commit to vital national missions without seeking commensurate remuneration for these assignments is in itself a major reflection of their integrity and moral values practices they practice. 

The model of autonomy: The Cabinet Note points out the fact that Vikram Sarabhai, as Director of the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), was of the view that until the development of the space programme acquired viability, ISRO should grow as an autonomous unit unfettered by governmental restrictions. The note describes ISRO as an autonomous body wholly financed by the Government of India. 

However, the financing model looked complex. ISRO received financial support from the DAE and channelled through the PRL, as an aided institution supported by the DAE. Capital grants were not made to ISRO with buildings being constructed by the Architecture and Civil Engineering Division of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and considered as the property of the Government.

With such complex funding structures in place and the space programme fledging, it needed to be separated from DAE and given a life of its own. Yet, the setting up of ISRO and its initial functioning is not just an odd and unique manner to run a national mission but also tells a lot about the thinking of the political (and scientific) leadership of the times as much as the ‘sense of autonomy’ prevailing among the scientists and the extent to which autonomy was to be implemented to be truly effective. 

Every mission is distinct: The Cabinet Note underlines the fact that the space programme has expanded tremendously and that both programmes will continue to expand in the coming years. Being advanced technologies, both programmes needed to be organised separately to enable full freedom of growth. To grow on its own like the nuclear programme, the space mission needed the commission and a department to support it, as provided to the nuclear and electronics missions. The latter seems to have preceded space owing to its significance in nuclear and other programmes. 

The location of Bangalore as headquarters of the Space Commission – being a location that could connect with all major R&D facilities – is interesting, especially following the Bombay example of the Atomic Energy Establishment Trombay (AEET), which later became BARC. While Bombay’s selection could be natural considering the cradle of the programme, TIFR, was in the same city, the prime movers behind the Cabinet Note, chiefly Haksar, Menon and Dhawan, could have had to choose between the two key establishments for the Commission’s headquarters. While PRL is the TIFR for the space programme, TERLS could be equated with AEET, for being the base of technology development. However, neither Ahmedabad nor Trivandrum could have provided the advantage that Bangalore could have, as mentioned in the Note, with the presence of aerospace and tooling industries.  

The leadership of the day was seemingly aware of the need to scatter national institutions across the country. However, there is sheer coincidence, or more, in the fact that the first Chairman-designate of the Commission also wanted to be based in Bangalore to head the IISc. Will it be reasonable to think that this might have influenced the choice of Bangalore, particularly to complement Dhawan’s dual roles and also benefit from the aerospace and electronics hub that Bangalore was turning into? 

A related interesting point is about how scientists took up governmental positions for the national mission (AEC/DAE, EC/DoE, SC, DoS) while seeking to maintain connections with their research alma mater, be it TIFR or IISc. How the governments of the day had made themselves flexible on such terms underlines the extent to which scientists were respected and any kind of arrangements be made in order to enable them to fulfil the national missions.  

In contrast, for comparison, is how the DRDO evolved, to a varying degree from the nuclear-electronics-space (NES) troika model. Nor did the organisation gain the benefit of a visionary leader at the helm in its initial decades of 1950-60s, until Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was deputed to head the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP), again, on the orders of the Prime Minister, who was impressed by the SLV-3 success. 

                                                               II

(a) The Draft Resolution in Annexure ‘A’ of the Cabinet Note

The formation of the Space Commission was based on the provisions espoused in this draft resolution. The Cabinet Secretariat Memorandum of 16 June 1972 states: “The Government have set up a Space Commission in terms of Resolution No. 83/1/1/72-CF, dated 1 June 1972, published in the Gazette of India Extraordinary of the same date.” The contents of the draft resolution were thus: 

Verbatim text of the Draft Resolution

1. The Government of India attaches the highest importance to the exploration of outer space and the development of space science and technology and their applications. Technological advances in this field are based on developments along advancing frontiers of many areas of science and technology. 

These developments produce rapid obsolescence not only of tools and equipment but also of established systems of organisation. The sophistication of this technology, the newness of the field, the strategic nature of its development and the many areas in which it has applications have to be borne in mind in devising a suitable organisational framework to handle this area on behalf of the Government. 

2. In order to promote a rapid development of activities connected with the Space Sciences, Space Technology and Space Applications, the Government of India consider it necessary to set up an organisation, free from all non-essential restrictions or needlessly inelastic rules, which will have responsibility in the entire field of the Science and Technology of Outer Space and their applications. 

3. After careful consideration, the Government of India have decided to establish a Space Commission with full executive and financial powers modelled on the liens of the Atomic Energy Commission 

4. Constitution of the Commission 

(a) The Commission shall consist of full-time and part-time members. The total number of numbers shall be not less than four nor more than seven. 

(b) The Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space will be the ex-officio Chairman of the Commission. 

(c) A member of the Commission shall be the Member for Finance, who shall also be ex-officio Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space in financial matters. 

5. Functions 

The Space Commission shall be responsible:-

(a) For formulating the policy of the Department of Space for the consideration and approval of the PM;

(b) For preparing the budget of the Department of Space for each financial year and getting approved by the Government; and 

(c) For the implementation of the Government’s policy in all matters concerning outer space 

6. Within the limits of the budge provision, approved by Parliament, the Commission shall have the powers of the Government of India, both administrative and financial, for carrying out the work of the Department of Space.

7.  Chairman

(a) The Chairman, in his capacity as Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Space, shall be responsible under the Prime Minister for arriving at decisions on technical questions and advising Government on matters of Space policy. All recommendations of the Commission on policy and allied matters shall be put up to the Prime Minister through the Chairman. 

(b) The Chairman shall have the power to overrule the other members of the Commission, except that the Member for Finance shall have the right to ask that any financial matter, in which he does not agree with the Chairman, be referred to the Prime Minister and the Finance Minister.

(c) The Chairman may authorise any member of the Commission to exercise on his behalf, subject to such general or special order as he may issue from time to time, such of his powers and responsibilities as he may decide. 

8. Member for Finance

The Member for Finance shall exercise the powers of the Government of India in financial matters concerning the Department of Space except in so far as such powers have been, or may in future be, conferred on or delegated to the Department. 

9. The Commission shall have the power to frame its own rules of procedures. The Commission shall meet at such times and places as may be fixed by the Chairman.

(b) A new organisational culture for nation-building: 

The Draft Resolution makes it clear that “the Government of India considers it necessary to set up an organisation, free from all non-essential restrictions or needlessly inelastic rules, which will have the responsibility in the entire field of science and technology of outer space and applications. The Resolution also talks about devising a suitable organisational framework to handle this area bearing in mind the sophistication of this technology, the newness of the field and its strategic nature, along with many areas in which it has applications. 

The political leadership, thus, was sufficiently convinced that space is a dynamic technological frontier that cannot be controlled, regulated or managed in conventional governance or bureaucratic templates. Yet, the government had ensured that the programmes are under parliamentary scrutiny, unlike the case with intelligence agencies, and that funds are earmarked from the national budget through parliament supervision. It was thus a unique form of governance exhibited by the time of the third decade of nation-building wherein autonomy is blended with accountability and latent political control.  

The statement in the Draft Resolution that the “Government of India attaches highest importance to the exploration of outer space and the development of Space Science and Technology and their applications,” was a marked reflection of the scientific vision visualised by the political leadership of the times. 

Be it about the swift advances made in the realm of nuclear energy development or the nuclear explosion, powers in the Western hemisphere and the industrial world were seen be in awe (often with scepticism and occasional sarcasm) about a third world country struggling with development goals (including illiteracy and health) and economic backwardness (to the extent of having to seek food aid) making major strides in advanced technological domains like nuclear, space and electronics. 

Hence, the statement that the government gives importance to exploration of outer space itself was a major declaration of intent – to use advanced technology for the fulfilment of social, developmental and economic objectives; to progress as a nation on par with advancements achieved by the developed world; to not allow inherent structural limitations to halt the advance of science and technology; and marking these as variables that could take the nation to greater heights in the coming decades. This vision has invariably proven to be effective and taken the nation on the forward path if the current power profile that India had gained, riding on these gains, is any indication. 

When seen retrospectively from today’s conditions, there is a need to attribute this success to the foundations laid in the 1950s and 1960s. The depth of political vision and scientific temper is also manifested in the appreciation of the field as well as the forecasts and forewarnings flagged in the draft resolution. These include articulations like technological advances in this field are along advancing frontiers of many areas of science and technology; these developments (could also) produce rapid obsolescence, not only of tools and equipment but also of established systems of organisation. 

This is a very significant statement, not just in the sense that the political leadership (and bureaucracy) showed a great understanding of the technological dimensions but also in warning of the pitfalls and challenges associated with the domain. For example, they forewarn that obsolescence will be a key challenge for technological development as every milestone might prove obsolete, irrelevant or countered by a new advancement in due course. 

Equally interesting is the caution sounded on the ‘established system of organisation,’ which, by and large, explains the thinking behind allowing a flexible and robust organisational culture for the nuclear-electronics-space missions. The consciousness that conventional wisdom on how national programmes are managed, especially when under governmental control, may not benefit such technological quests is amplified in this statement. 

Hence, the advice that the “sophistication of this technology, newness of the field, its strategic nature” should all be borne in mind while devising the organisation framework.” That such a formulation is given even in the early 1970s (1972 to be specific) embodies not just the quality of thinking and deep knowledge base of the personalities involved. Rather, the adoption of the AEC model into other areas was also implicitly a recognition of the Bhabha model of organisational structuring, flexibility, scientific leadership and institutional governance. 

The Draft Resolution paraphrases this phenomenon through a nuanced messaging – that “to promote the rapid development of activities….,” the organisation should be free from all ‘non-essential restrictions or needlessly inelastic rules.” Thereby, the pragmatism of limiting bureaucratic oversight or meddling in these critical national missions has proven to be an effective strategy. 

That this template was not adopted as a national strategy for the organisational development of public entities is simply signified by the fact that no other subsequent programmes or missions of national importance had gained the kind of success and efficiency that the N-E-S missions had achieved, at a critical juncture in the nation-building journey.