Along with various forms of repressions, atrocities and denial of rights inflicted upon different sections of people since time immemorial, gender discrimination has been an area which has been significantly debated and studied in recent times. While discrimination in various forms against women has been part of popular discourses, one notable area that has found very little discussion is the question of suffrage or franchise, and how women in various societies and regions struggled to attain this right to vote, elect and participate in politics and governance. 

In fact, the global history of women’s suffrage could provide an alternate narrative and imagery on the socio-political history of various societies and regions where such movements raged and made an impact. 

Women in America, for example, got the right to vote in 1920, England in 1928, France in 1944-45 and Switzerland in 1974. Indian women, on the other hand, were endowed with the right to vote even before our independence, in the year 1923, exactly 100 years ago.

While the United States of America (USA/US) became independent on 4 July 1776, women’s franchise came more than a century and a half later with the 19th amendment, which was ratified on 18 August 1920. In crown-ruled England, the 1918 Act provided suffrage for women above 30 years who met minimum property qualifications, whereas men over the age of 21 were eligible. It was the Equal Franchise Act of 1928 that allowed men and women over the age of 21 the right to vote.

As India embraces greater progress and inclusivity in its nation-building project, let us look at the path which led to women’s right to vote in India. What were the developments in India, in England and across the world that shaped this movement? What was the effect of education on women in this process? Also, how did the British Parliament take such a generous stand on Indian women’s suffrage, within five years of granting limited suffrage to women in their own country?  

The first signs

Since eternity, women have been denied many societal rights and privileges of the citizenry that were enjoyed by their male counterparts. In numerous civilisations and societies, women were domesticated into raising children and managing households while larger roles of politics and statecraft were typically male-driven and monopolised. 

Women’s access to education was historically restricted in many societies. Their lack of education was used as an argument against their participation in politics. Moreover, voting rights were often tied to property ownership or tax-paying status. Since women were often excluded from property ownership and financial independence, they were consequently denied the right to vote.­ 

The first signs of the suffrage movement can be traced back to the French Revolution (1780-1790), but it was not until the late 19th and early 20th century that many international suffragist groups would see the light of day. Even though women were not able to vote at all, not all males could vote either in those supposedly democratic societies. Only wealthy males over the age of 21 who owned property or paid a high rent were able to vote, with the wealthiest men often able to vote in more than one constituency too.

The Isle of Man (British Island) sets the ball rolling

With women’s suffrage movements starting to make their imprints by the late 19th century, a small British-crown dependency in the Irish Sea cast the first stone for this radical socio-political transformation, globally. In 1881, Tynwald, the parliament of the Isle of Man became the first national parliament to give women the chance to vote in a national election. 

However, similar rules of limitations still applied: all males, spinsters, and women over the age of 21 needed to be fairly wealthy (i.e., owning or occupying property to the value of £4 or more) to cast their vote.

This groundbreaking move later saw New Zealand (1893) and Finland (1907) among the first few nations to grant full universal suffrage, giving every woman the right to vote, not just those who owned property or met any criterion of wealth. Many other countries were destined to follow suit.

New Zealand - the first colony/dominion to do so 

The women's suffrage movement in New Zealand is a fascinating and important part of modern world history. The movement started gaining momentum in the late 19th century though the earliest organized efforts for women's suffrage can be traced back to the 1880s. In 1887, the first petition for women's suffrage was presented to the New Zealand Parliament. It was led by Mary Ann Müller, who was a prominent advocate for women's rights at the time. However, the petition was not successful in achieving suffrage.

The movement gained significant traction in the early 1890s, particularly with the efforts of women's rights activists like Kate Sheppard, who, along with other suffragists, organized the first nationwide campaign for suffrage in 1891. They gathered signatures for a petition demanding women's right to vote. Though this petition too was initially rejected, it laid the groundwork for future efforts. 

The following year, the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) coordinated a new, more extensive petition that gained widespread support across the country. The petition collected nearly 32,000 signatures, which was a remarkable feat considering New Zealand's population at the time (6,26,000).

The sustained efforts and determination of the suffragists eventually led to success in 1893 when the Electoral Act granting women the right to vote was passed by the New Zealand Parliament. It granted women over the age of 21 the right to vote, making New Zealand the first self-governing country in the world to give women the right to vote in national elections.

On 28 November 1893, New Zealand held its first general election with women exercising their voting rights. More than half of the eligible women voters turned out to vote, making it a landmark moment in women's history.

The success of the New Zealand suffrage movement paved the way for progress in other countries, and it remains an important chapter in the global fight for gender equality.

Australia follows suit

Australia was also at the forefront to grant women’s suffrage. South Australia became the first colony in Australia to grant women the right to vote and stand for election in 1894. South Australia, Western Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania were the first to grant women the right to vote in the late 19th century. These victories in individual states set important precedents and created momentum for suffrage at the federal level.

The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1900, outlined the structure and powers of the new federal government in Australia. The Constitution did not specifically address the issue of women's suffrage, leaving it to be decided by the new Australian Parliament. On 1 January 1901, Australia federated, uniting the six colonies into a single nation. With the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia, there was an opportunity to establish uniform laws and principles, including suffrage, across the newly formed nation.

After the federation, the first Australian Parliament was convened in 1901. During this session, members of parliament debated various issues, including women's suffrage. The Women's Political Association (WPA) was a prominent suffrage organization in Australia, with members such as Vida Goldstein, Mary Lee, and Selina Anderson, who campaigned relentlessly for women's suffrage, organizing public meetings, petitions, and lobbying efforts.

The original Commonwealth Franchise Act passed in 1902, allowed only male British subjects to vote in federal elections. However, an amendment was proposed to extend voting rights to women. On 13 June 1902, the second reading of the amendment bill took place in the House of Representatives which indicated that there was significant support for the cause within the parliament.

On 19 June 1902, the Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 was passed by the House of Representatives. It was subsequently passed by the Senate on June 20, 1902. On 21 June 1902, Governor-General Lord Tennyson gave royal assent to the Act, making it law for women over the age of 21 who were British subjects to be eligible to vote in the federal elections.

This was a significant milestone as it ensured that women had voting rights across the newly federated nation of Australia and laid the groundwork for future advancements in women's rights and political participation. However, for indigenous Australian women, the right to vote varied depending on state policies. In some states, it was not until 1962 that all indigenous Australians gained federal voting rights.

Finland – first to endow total women’s franchise

The struggle for women's franchise in Finland was a significant movement that culminated in Finland becoming one of the first countries in the world to grant full voting rights to women. 

The women's suffrage movement in Finland began to gain momentum in the late 19th century. Inspired by similar movements in other countries, women's organizations advocating rights and suffrage worked to raise awareness, promote education, and foster solidarity among women.

In 1906, Finland witnessed a general strike that demanded political reforms and universal suffrage for both men and women. In the same year, Finland enacted the Parliament Act, which introduced universal suffrage for men over 24 years of age. However, women were not granted the right to vote at this time.

In 1907, the Finnish Women's Association (Naisasialiitto Unioni) was founded, bringing together various women's organizations to work collectively for women's rights, including suffrage. The Association gathered over 1,50,000 signatures in support of women's suffrage, demonstrating widespread public support for the cause.

In response, Finland's Parliament passed a new Parliament Act in 1907 granting women the right to vote and stand for election. Finland thus became the first country in Europe to grant women full suffrage. In the parliamentary elections held that year, Finish women exercised their right to vote. Thirteen women were elected to the Finnish Parliament which included Miina Sillanpää, who became the first female minister not just in Finland but also in modern world history.

Finland's granting of women's suffrage in 1906 was groundbreaking and served as an inspiration for women's suffrage movements worldwide. In fact, the struggles for suffrage were part of a broader movement for gender equality and paved the way for greater participation of women in Finnish society and politics.

Western powers were comparatively slow 

The United States of America (USA/US) declared its independence from the British on 4 July 1776. Slavery was officially abolished in the US with the ratification of the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution on 6 December 1865. However, women’s right to vote came only in 1920, just a year ahead of Indian women achieving suffrage.

The women's suffrage movement in the US officially began with the Seneca Falls Convention in July 1848. Organized by women's rights advocates Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the convention issued the “Declaration of Sentiments,” which demanded equal rights for women, including the right to vote.

Subsequently, suffrage associations were formed across the country, including, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1869 and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) formed in 1869, which later merged with NWSA to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

Wyoming became the first American state to grant women the right to vote in 1869. A year later, the 15th Amendment gave voting rights to men, including African Americans.

Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, suffragists worked on state-level campaigns to secure voting rights for women. Several states, including Colorado (1893), Utah (1896), and Idaho (1896), granted women the right to vote before the federal amendment.

In 1916, Alice Paul founded the National Woman's Party (NWP), which employed more militant and confrontational tactics in its quest for suffrage. They organized pickets and protests outside the White House, facing arrests and mistreatment.

In 1919, the US Congress passed the 19th Amendment to the Constitution, which stated: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” 

The 19th Amendment was ratified on 18 August 1920 when Tennessee became the 36th state to approve it and officially certified on 26 August 1920. This day, now known as Women's Equality Day, marks the formal grant of voting rights to women in the United States.

The journey to achieving women's suffrage in the US was marked by the dedication, perseverance and tireless efforts of countless suffragists and activists whose collective struggle for equal rights left a lasting impact on the fight for gender equality in the country

The United Kingdom witnessed a long-winding and arduous campaign for women's suffrage that spanned several decades before the right to vote was granted to women in 1918 after decades of struggle by women's suffrage movements starting from the 1860s.

One of the key figures was Barbara Bodichon, a women's rights advocate, who played a crucial role in organizing and mobilizing women to demand suffrage. In 1866, she formed the first women's suffrage committee called the Kensington Society, which later became the London Society for Women's Suffrage. The committee gathered signatures for a petition demanding women's right to vote, which was presented to Parliament but unfortunately was not successful.

In 1867, the London National Society for Women's Suffrage was formed to play a vital role in coordinating suffrage efforts across the country. In the same year, a petition with signatures from 1,499 women was presented to the British Parliament, advocating for women's right to vote, but was, again, rejected.

Throughout the 1860s, women's suffrage societies continued to be established in various regions of England with public meetings and debates organised to raise awareness about this cause. These organisations, however, faced resistance and criticism from some segments of society and encountered a prevailing belief that women should not participate in politics.

Despite the setbacks and slow progress, the efforts made in the 1860s laid the groundwork for future suffrage movements with the women's rights movements expanding in the following decades, leading to significant advancements in women's voting rights in the early 20th century.

Socially, women's roles began to shift as they became more active in the workforce, particularly during World War-I, which helped in challenging traditional gender perceptions and norms. However, despite these advancements, gender inequality persisted as women faced various challenges in education, employment, and societal expectations. The 1920s laid the groundwork for major transformations in the following decades.

The first petition to Parliament requesting women's right to vote was presented but was unsuccessful as the suffrage movement continued to face opposition from different quarters. Women, however, engaged in peaceful protests and civil disobedience to raise awareness and pressure the government to grant them the right to vote. 

In 1897, Millicent Fawcett founded the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), which became the leading suffrage organization and advocated for women's suffrage through non-violent means, lobbying and public education campaigns.

In contrast, the suffragette movement led by The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), founded by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters in 1903, was characterized by aggressive and, sometimes, militant tactics. Suffragettes engaged in protests, marches, hunger strikes and acts of civil disobedience to draw attention to their cause. Some women were arrested and even force-fed while on hunger strikes.

All these struggles and protests led to the Representation of the People Act of 6 February 1918, which granted voting rights to certain groups of women over the age of 30 who met specific property qualifications. It also extended voting rights to all men over the age of 21. This Act allowed millions of working-class women to vote for the first time alongside all men, not just the wealthy. 

Eight months later, on 21st October, The Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act was also passed allowing women to stand for Parliament, and on 14th December of that year, eligible female voters voted in their first-ever general election. However, it was not until July 1928, when the Equal Franchise Act was passed that all women over 21 could vote and had equal voting rights to men. This legislation removed the property qualifications that had previously restricted women’s voting rights. Women aged between 21 and 29 were able to vote for the first time on 30 May 1929.

Women’s suffrage movements in France emerged during the mid-19th century, with early activists like Hubertine Auclert and Maria Deraismes advocating for women's right to vote. However, their efforts were met with resistance from conservative groups and the government. Throughout the late 19th and early 20thcenturies, the suffrage movement faced setbacks and made slow progress. Women's rights were a contentious issue, and suffrage bills were repeatedly rejected by the French Parliament.

The First World War, however, played a significant role in advancing the suffrage cause. During the war, women actively contributed to the workforce and the war effort, challenging traditional gender roles, and earning them recognition and support for their right to vote.

In 1919, French women finally achieved a partial victory when the French government passed a law granting them the right to vote in municipal elections. This allowed women to vote and run for office in local elections, but it did not extend to national elections.

It was not until 1944, after the Second World War, that French women finally gained full suffrage. On 21 April 1944, a constitutional amendment was passed, granting women the right to vote and stand as candidates in all national elections, 9 years after British India.

The struggle for women’s suffrage in France was a long and challenging one, spanning several decades. It took the efforts of numerous activists and the changing social and political landscape for women to finally achieve full suffrage in the country. The post-war era marked a significant turning point for women's rights in France, leading to broader political and social advancements for women.

India – the trailblazer for the third world

After the British Parliament took over the governance of Indian territories from the East India Company through the Government of India Act 1858, the need for representation in governance for the natives in British India was introduced through the Indian Councils Act 1909, or the Morley-Minto Reforms proposed by Lord Minto, the then Viceroy of India, and, Lord Morley, the then Secretary of State for India. 

The first central Legislative Council constituted under the Act comprised 68 members with 27 of them being ‘elected’ members. It was a bicameral body consisting of two chambers: the Executive Council and the Legislative Council. The Executive Council consisted of high-ranking British officials and was responsible for making laws and regulations. The Legislative Council included both nominated and a small portion of elected non-official members. High-ranking British officials who held certain portfolios in the British government were nominated as official members. 

A certain number of Indians were nominated by the Viceroy as non-official members. They were chosen to represent certain communities, professions or interests. The rest, ‘elected’ non-official members, represented the provinces and were chosen by a restricted electorate that included a small percentage of the population with certain qualifications, such as property ownership or education.

The establishment of the first Central Legislative Council, nonetheless, can be seen as a significant development in British India. It marked the beginning of a gradual process towards increased Indian participation in governance and legislative affairs.

During the early 1900s, various organisations like the Women’s India Association, the National Council for Women in India and the All India Women’s Congress (AIWC), among others, had come into being. Dr Muthulakshmi Reddy (1888–1968), a founder member of AIWC, was also the first woman medical graduate in the country in 1912.

In 1917, a women’s delegation presented a petition to the Secretary of Indian Affairs when he visited India with the demand that the meaning of “Indian People” should also include and imply Indian women as well. From 1918 to 1919, the Southborough Franchise Committee was entrusted with the task of framing franchise regulations in India. However, the Committee stated that social conditions in India were not favourable to allow women’s participation in the election process.

Subsequently, a four-member delegation comprising Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Herabhai Tata and Mithan Tata went to England to submit evidence before a joint Parliamentary Committee. Based on these discussions, the elected legislature in India was provided with the option to decide on offering suffrage to women. 

A series of legislations followed in different provinces in India allowing limited franchise to women, which meant that only those women who qualified certain property and education criteria were allowed to vote. As a result, the Madras Presidency in India took the initiative and granted limited suffrage to women in 1921. 

The Madras Presidency’s decision was a significant milestone making Madras the first province in British India to allow women to vote in elections. This was not just a crucial step towards women’s political empowerment in India but also preceded the wider suffrage expansion in the country. 

The suffrage movement in India continued to gain momentum with the Madras action followed by the Bombay Province in the same year. In 1923, the central legislature granted women the right to vote for the Indian Legislative Assembly, although limited. Eventually, in 1935, the Government of India Act further expanded suffrage, allowing a limited number of women to vote in provincial elections.

General elections in British India

The process of Indians participating in governance started with the first general elections in British India in September 1930. The newly-elected Central Legislative Assembly, comprising of the nationalist parties, independent groupings, minor parties and Europeans, met for the first time on 14 January 1931. In the same year, women were given the right to contest elections, though, yet again, subject to property and education-specific criteria.

General elections were again conducted in British India in 1934. The constituencies were Assam, Ajmer-Merwara, Bengal, Bihar & Orissa, Bombay, Burma, Central Provinces, Delhi, Madras, North West Frontier Province, Punjab and United Provinces. The total enrolled electorate in the contested constituencies was 11,35,899, of which 62,757 were women. However, only 14,505 women had used the ballot, out of total polled votes of 6,08,198.

Subsequently, the Government of India Act, of 1935, relaxed the franchise qualifications for women with the following provisions: 

(a) Minimum age of 21 years

(b) Ownership of property and a taxpayer

(c) Ability to read and write in any Indian language/dialect

(d) Wives/widows of tax-paying male

(e) Wives/widows of officers and soldiers of Majesty’s regular forces.

The Act also reserved some seats for women in federal and provincial legislation. Even with these relaxations, it was just 0.06 per cent of women who were eligible to contest. 

Nevertheless, this was progress in the right direction. 

Factors that enabled suffrage for Indian women 

The reasons behind the British Parliament's different responses to the demands for women’s suffrage in England and India are complex and influenced by various factors. It is important to consider the historical and political context of that period.

The British government had significant control over colonial territories, and they often made decisions based on strategic and political interests to maintain their colonial rule.

By the early 20th century, India's independence movement was gaining momentum, and the demand for self-governance and political rights was growing stronger. Granting suffrage to Indian women might have been a way to address some demands, appease at least certain segments of the population, avoid potential unrest, and gain support for continued British rule. 

The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced a system of diarchy in India, granting local legislatures some degree of autonomy to make decisions on certain matters. The decision to grant suffrage in Madras Presidency might have been influenced by the desire to give more power to local authorities in India.

The British government might have held different cultural perceptions about women's rights and political participation in India compared to England. Their decisions could have, accordingly, been influenced by preconceived notions and beliefs about the role of women in Indian society.  

Education also played a crucial role in empowering women and advancing their fight for the right to vote. Education helped raise awareness among women about their rights and the inequalities they faced, including the lack of political representation. As women became more educated, they recognized the need for political participation and social reform, which fuelled their desire to gain suffrage.

Educated women were better equipped to organize and mobilize for the suffrage movement. They could lead and participate in suffrage societies, advocate this cause and effectively communicate their ideas and demands to a broader audience, which helped in changing public opinion and gaining support for their cause. Education also challenged traditional gender roles and norms as educated women demonstrated their intellectual capabilities and capacity for public engagement. 

Furthermore, educational institutions provided opportunities for women to build networks and connections with like-minded individuals, which facilitated the spread of suffrage ideas and strategies. It also allowed women to develop leadership skills, enabling them to take on more prominent roles in the suffrage movement. This helped create a generation of well-informed and determined women leaders.

How independent India carried the momentum forward

Though women’s suffrage was enabled by the British in India, it was the post-independence era that saw a more significant expansion of women's suffrage in India. After gaining independence in 1947, India adopted its Constitution in 1950, which granted universal adult suffrage to all citizens, regardless of gender, race, or religion. This meant that all adult men and women in India had the right to vote and participate in the democratic process.

However, this was also not an easy task. When the draft electoral roll preparation started in November 1947, the number of voters leapt to 173 million, which included 80 million women. Yet, four million women had registered their status as wife, daughter or widow of a male relative. The government made it clear that this was not permissible and that women had to register themselves as individuals. Various organisations also appealed to women to register as individuals. Consequently, the exercise was redone though over 2.8 million women voters had to be excluded from the rolls as they had failed to disclose their names.

In the timeline of women's suffrage, Indian women were among the earliest to achieve full suffrage rights at the national level in 1935, following countries like New Zealand (1893), Australia (1902), Finland (1907), USA (1920) and the United Kingdom (1928). It is notable when this is compared with the fact that women’s suffrage was granted in France in 1944 and Switzerland in 1971.

The recognition of women's full suffrage in the Indian Constitution was a significant milestone for women's empowerment and political participation in the country.

However, as per recent reports, India ranked 148 among 191 countries for the number of women in its parliament. As we commemorate the centenary of women’s franchise in the world’s largest democracy, the road to equal and greater roles and representation in governance and decision-making structures is still a long way ahead.  

 (The views expressed here are solely of the author.)