Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad serve as a mirror to the broader struggles of balancing development with environmental preservation in India. As Kerala's most important wetland and agricultural region, the challenges faced here reflect issues affecting similar ecosystems across the country.

The environmental degradation, exacerbated by unregulated agricultural expansion and urbanisation, underscores the urgent need for policy reform addressing both ecological restoration and sustainable agriculture. The question is not just about protecting wetlands, but about fostering policies that can empower local communities while meeting national food security needs.

The need for an integrated approach to water management, agricultural practices and urban development is more pressing than ever. This calls for a policy shift toward circular economy principles where the land, water and biodiversity are not seen as separate resources, but as interconnected elements vital for long-term socio-economic stability and environmental health.

The impact of climate change in recent years is starkly visible in the increasing flood intensity in Kuttanad, one of the two rice bowls of Kerala. Rising global temperatures have led to more unpredictable rainfall patterns, which exacerbate the risks faced by flood-prone regions like Vembanad. This highlights an urgent need for adaptive policies that incorporate climate change projections into flood control, water management and agricultural planning.

Image: The flurry of houseboats at a jetty along the Vembanad. Source: Kerala Tourism. 

In recent years, Kerala has undertaken various initiatives under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), including measures for climate-resilient agriculture. However, the scale of changes required in regions like Kuttanad—where flooding, saltwater intrusion and ecosystem degradation are all intertwined—requires targeted, long-term interventions.

Policymakers must not only focus on immediate relief but also on developing long-term strategies for flood mitigation, habitat restoration and ecosystem-based adaptation. One crucial step could be integrating floodplain management strategies within national and state-level policies to safeguard regions like Kuttanad, which are both economically vital and ecologically sensitive.

Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad

Vembanad Lake is one of the most unique and largest water bodies in India. Connecting to the Arabian Sea at the Kochi estuary, Vembanad Lake stretches approximately 229 Sq. Km area touching the districts of Alappuzha, Kottayam and Ernakulam. Six rivers originating from the Western Ghats flow westward, enriching the lake with water.

Each part of the lake has a distinct name. The northern part of the lake is known as Kochi Kayal. This part is linked to the Kochi Port. The Varapuzha River, a tributary of the Periyar River, joins the lake here. Further south, the lake is referred to as Kaithapuzha Kayal, and the following section is known locally as Vaikom Kayal, where the Muvattupuzha River merges.

The Thanneermukkom Bund, constructed in 1974, connects Vechoor on the eastern bank and Thanneermukkom on the western bank, effectively dividing Vembanad Lake into two parts. This bund plays a crucial role in preventing the intrusion of saline water into the agriculturally significant southern parts of the lake.

In the southern region, various sections of the lake have distinct names. Near Alappuzha, it is called Punnamada Kayal, while near Kottayam, it is referred to as Pazhukkanila Kayal.

To the south of the Thanneermukkom Bund, the lake’s shores form the boundary between Kottayam and Alappuzha districts. This fertile area, where rivers flow into the lake, is known as Kuttanad. Geographically, Kuttanad is divided sequentially from north to south into regions such as Vaikom Kari, Northern Kuttanad, Kayal Lands, Lower Kuttanad, Upper Kuttanad and Purakkad Kari. The Lower Kuttanad and Upper Kuttanad, combined with some lake lands, form the Kuttanad Taluk.

Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad are characterised by their unique biodiversity. Mangrove forests and rare plants thrive along the shores. Numerous bird sanctuaries, such as Kumarakom, attract migratory birds. Within the lake, there are around ten small islands, including Pathiramanal Island, which spans approximately 10 acres.

Although the lakebed is rich in sediment deposited by rivers, it is also home to clams, whose shells accumulate over time. The lake also hosts unique fish species, distinct from both marine and freshwater fish.

The Meenachil, Manimala, Pamba and Achankovil rivers merge into Vembanad Lake within Kuttanad. As these rivers enter Kuttanad, they split into numerous channels before reaching the lake's confluence points. A common channel of the Pamba and Achankovil rivers flows westward, bypassing the lake, and joins the Arabian Sea through the Thottappally Spillway.

The agricultural lands of Kuttanad were formed over time through the deposition of silt carried by these rivers. The regulation of severe monsoon floods in these rivers depends on the volume of excess water discharged from the lake into the sea.

The history of the formation of Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad

Before the 3rd century CE, what is now Vembanad Lake was an inland sea connected to the Arabian Sea. This is supported by Roman texts of that time, such as Pliny the Elder’s ‘Natural History,’ Claudius Ptolemy’s ‘Geographia,’ and the navigational guide ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.’

It is believed that the sandbar stretching from Alappuzha to Arookutty, which now separates the lake from the sea, did not exist during that period.

Islands scattered across the shallow inland sea eventually merged into a continuous landmass due to natural calamities and silt deposition, resulting in the formation of the lake as it is today. Geologists and historians suggest that the lake lost its direct connection to the sea over time, although many canals across the sandbar maintained partial connectivity.

During its time as an inland sea, the eastern mainland where rivers converged was home to spice trading ports. Historical texts mention ports like Semne at the mouth of the Muvattupuzha River, Koraiyura at the Meenachil River and Nelkinda at the confluence of the Pamba and Manimala rivers.

Shipping channels were deepened to allow raft-loaded cargo ships to navigate the shallow waters.

Evidence also suggests the presence of extensive mangrove forests along with scattered islands in this inland sea. With the formation of Vembanad Lake, these river ports lost significance, leading to the development of the Purakkad Port along the coast and, by the 14th century, the emergence of Kochi as a new port.

Image: A row of ducks in a Kuttanad canal. Photo by Bibin Das

Between the 3rd and 10th centuries CE and during the catastrophic events of 1341 CE, repeated floods and sediment deposition expanded the vast southern regions of the lake, forming the agricultural lands of Kuttanad. Evidence from the Tiruvalla copper plates, which mention rice cultivation in Chathankari, suggests that farming began by clearing marshy lands adjacent to the mainland before the 12th century.

Early agricultural activities began in the relatively higher areas where the Pamba and Achankovil rivers flowed. These regions, known as Upper Kuttanad, were the first to implement rice farming by clearing marshy lands. The surface slit and black soil deposits were removed, bunds were constructed to prepare fields, and water was directed into the fields using water wheels for irrigation, marking the beginning of puncha cultivation (wetland rice farming) in Kuttanad.

The local rulers and Brahmin landlords supervised the rice cultivation. Agricultural communities settled near the farming lands, levelled silt deposits into the ground, and prepared housing areas. Continuous layering of silt led to the formation of elevated land masses in Kuttanad. Silt deposited in river channels and canals was extracted and spread along the banks to create higher grounds.

As farming became widespread, different communities migrated to lease the land for cultivation.

The need to increase rice production led to the practice of bunding fields on three sides, draining excess water, and retaining sufficient water for cultivation. Gradually, the method of reclaiming shallow and open lake areas for farming developed, particularly in the Lower Kuttanad regions. The process of converting lake areas into farmland, known as kayal reclamation, began in the late 19th century and continued until the mid-20th century.

Approximately two-thirds of Vembanad Lake was converted into reclaimed farmland using protective bunds, creating polders spanning thousands of acres. In the earlier reclaimed farmlands and kayal areas, only one rice crop per year was possible due to the intrusion of saline water from the sea into the lake during the dry season, which adversely affected agriculture.

The idea that blocking saline water with a bund would enable two crops per year led the Kerala government to construct the Thanneermukkom Bund, which has been functional since 1976. In subsequent years, this facilitated double cropping, significantly increasing rice production in the region.

The disruption of the natural process of saltwater mixing in the lake caused adverse changes in the ecosystem. It led to alterations in the fish population and other aquatic species, with some facing the threat of extinction. The increase in pests and insects harmful to crops led to the widespread use of pesticides throughout Kuttanad.

This excessive use of pesticides polluted the lake and caused significant harm to its biodiversity.

Failures in agricultural technology and unscientific methods in bund construction led to land subsidence and crop damage. Many farmers abandoned cultivation in large reclaimed areas such as R-Block. Over time, rice farming in Kuttanad faced major setbacks and became increasingly limited.

Water flowing through the rivers, combined with urbanisation, introduced large amounts of waste into the lake. With the growth of the tourism industry centred around Alappuzha and Kumarakom, waste from tourist centres along the lake’s shores flowed into the lake unchecked. Additionally, waste discharged by houseboats severely polluted the lake's water.

Invasive aquatic plants like African payal (water hyacinth) and kulavazha (water lettuce) have proliferated in stagnant canals and parts of the lake, creating obstacles for water navigation. The inability to open and close the Thanneermukkom Bund at the designated times due to irregular agricultural calendars has disrupted the natural flow of water, exacerbating the level of pollution in the lake.

The intensity of floods in the rivers flowing into Vembanad Lake has been increasing yearly, posing a significant threat to the lives of people in the low-lying areas near the lake. In recent years, floodwater levels have risen higher than ever before. Furthermore, delays in the lake's ability to accommodate river water have prolonged the duration of flooding.

The devastation caused by the 2018 floods highlighted the significant reduction in the lake’s water retention capacity. In several parts of Vembanad Lake, where the depth was once up to 30 meters, it has now reduced to around 3 meters. Silt deposition from rivers during each flood has reduced the depth, thereby diminishing the lake’s water retention capacity.

The reduction in the surface area of the lake is in addition to the loss of its depth. In earlier times, the silt deposited in rivers and canals was annually removed by traditional agricultural labourers and used to elevate land for cultivation. The silt was also dredged out of the lake. With the enforcement of the Sand Mining Prohibition Act, even the removal of silt from rivers became impossible.

Additionally, dredging operations in the lake were also halted. As a result, the accumulation of silt deposits raised the lakebed, contributing to flooding in nearby areas.

At the points where rivers meet the lake, large amounts of silt deposits have formed sandbanks, obstructing the natural flow of water. In the past, human interventions for agricultural activities ensured the regular removal of silt from rivers and lakes. However, over the last fifty years, the lack of such activities has led to a reduction in depth and the formation of mudflats.

Low-lying areas near the lake have been transformed into residential zones by filling marshes and fields with soil, often sourced from hill cutting. This, along with the filling of small canals that previously facilitated water flow, has obstructed the flow of water from rivers into the lake.

Furthermore, the unscientific construction of roads across fields without adequate bridges or culverts has significantly hindered water flow during floods.

Image: A map of Kuttanad region. 

Persistent flooding in Lower Kuttanad has become an unusual phenomenon. In densely populated areas such as Pulinkunnu, Mankombu, Kavalam and Chathurthyakari, water levels remain high for up to eight months a year, adversely affecting the lives of residents. Wealthy and middle-class residents of these areas have relocated by purchasing land and building homes in higher regions.

However, economically disadvantaged individuals are left to struggle with the hardships and are forced to remain in Kuttanad. The adverse effects of flooding are widespread across the regions surrounding Vembanad Lake, making localised solutions insufficient to effectively address the problem.

The social cost of environmental degradation in Kuttanad

The environmental issues facing Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad are not just ecological—they are deeply social and economic. In Kuttanad, communities dependent on rice farming and fishing face an existential crisis as the region struggles with flooding and land subsidence.

The region, often referred to as ‘the rice bowl of Kerala,’ has witnessed a decline in agricultural productivity due to saltwater intrusion and altered water cycles.

Economic inequality in Kuttanad has further exacerbated the impact of environmental degradation. Wealthier residents, able to invest in flood-proof infrastructure, are relocating to safer areas, leaving behind poorer communities that are most vulnerable to flooding and other environmental risks. These marginalised communities, often lacking the financial resources for adaptation, are forced to contend with rising water levels and unpredictable agricultural outcomes.

Addressing the socio-economic challenges requires a dual approach: one that balances environmental restoration with policies aimed at improving resilience for the communities that rely on Kuttanad’s wetlands for their livelihood.

The Kerala government must consider inclusive policies that provide financial assistance, support local farmers, and create sustainable livelihood alternatives to ensure that the most vulnerable populations are not left behind.

Insights from global best practices: What India can learn from the Netherlands

The Netherlands has long been a pioneer in managing wetland ecosystems, balancing agriculture, water management and flood prevention. Dutch policies around land reclamation, water drainage and flood control could serve as a model for areas like Kuttanad, where similar issues are faced.

For example, in the Netherlands, the use of polders—land reclaimed from the sea—has been refined over centuries.

Modern techniques ensure that water levels are carefully managed, and wetland ecosystems are restored through careful regulation of water flow.

By integrating similar strategies, India could not only manage its wetlands more effectively but also restore vital ecosystems that serve as carbon sinks and support biodiversity. However, lessons learned from the Netherlands also caution against over-reliance on technological solutions without considering the ecological consequences of disrupting natural processes.

Therefore, India’s approach must incorporate ecological restoration alongside flood mitigation technologies, ensuring that both the environment and communities benefit.

Innovative policy measures for sustainable flood management in Kuttanad

The policy challenges around Kuttanad require a comprehensive approach that not only addresses flood control but also integrates ecological preservation, sustainable agriculture and climate adaptation.

The following measures can help reduce the severity of floods. Since rivers are the primary source of flooding, solutions to the problems faced by the lake must also address the rivers that flow into it. Efforts should focus on assessing the factors contributing to flooding and implementing solutions in both the rivers and the lake.

- Develop a holistic strategy for managing the rivers that feed into Vembanad, incorporating watershed management, flood forecasting and ecosystem restoration.

- Promote the use of sustainable farming techniques like organic farming, integrated pest management and crop diversification, which can help mitigate the environmental impact of agriculture.

- Introduce innovative insurance models for farmers in Kuttanad that provide financial relief during flood events, ensuring that they can continue farming even in the face of repeated floods.

Image: An aerial view of Thanneermukkom Bund/Barrage. Source: Irrigation Department

- Enforce strict regulations on construction in flood-prone areas and promote flood-resilient infrastructure development, including the creation of green spaces, better drainage systems, and flood barriers.

- Control encroachments in the catchment areas of rivers. Prohibit rock quarrying near river origins by law to prevent damage to water sources. Strengthen afforestation efforts in the catchment areas.

- Dismantle unscientific dams. Remove sand deposits from the channels that connect rivers to the lake.

- Remove sandbanks and silt deposits that obstruct the flow of major rivers. Any other modernisation activities should be conducted only after thorough studies. Care must be taken to ensure that such human interventions do not disrupt the natural structure or the ecological balance of rivers.

- Remove silt deposits from the river channels leading to the lake and deepen them. Initially, increase the depth of rivers and the lake near their confluence to facilitate faster water flow. Also, deepen the small canals in the fields.

- Reclaim canals that have been blocked or narrowed due to encroachments.

- Align the agricultural calendar in Kuttanad with the effective use of the Thanneermukkom Bund.

- Improve the water-carrying capacity of Vembanad Lake by removing accumulated silt and deepening the lake. The dredged silt can be used to reinforce the bunds around reclaimed lake areas. During flood seasons, ensure that the reclaimed lands are fully open to allow the lake to accommodate excess water.

- To ensure that only the water from the Manimala River reaches its designated path, a regulator can be installed at the Kuthiyathodu (Nakkida-Valanjavattom waterway) to divert the water from the river. Similarly, a regulator can be placed at the Pullangadi waterway in Champakulam to redirect the water from the Pamba and Achankovil rivers westward.

- By connecting the Pamba and Achankovil rivers and enhancing the depth and width of the western pathways and associated canals toward Thottappally, maximum water flow can be directed to the sea via the Thottappally Spillway without flowing northward. These regulators should be designed with provisions for water navigation. The shutters should be closed only during flood seasons.

- Renovate the leading channel of the Thottappally Spillway to its recommended depth and width, and restore the flow of water into the sea.

- Reinstall regulators at the estuaries of the CP Canal in Alappuzha and the Ezhupunna-Andhakaranazhi Canal. Using large ‘Baahubali’ pumps, explore the possibility of discharging excess floodwater from the lake into the sea during severe floods. If these regulators are opened simultaneously with the opening of the Thanneermukkom Bund, it will allow tidal seawater to flow in, facilitating the natural purification of the lake.

Several studies, expert suggestions and discussions at the state level have already taken place regarding the environmental issues faced by Kuttanad and flood control measures. However, initiatives such as the Kuttanad Package and other developmental projects have yet to effectively address the problems.

The next necessary step is to coordinate these studies and suggestions, refine them into more practical solutions, and implement a comprehensive plan.

Image: A paddy field reclaimed from the lake; Photo by author

Moving beyond short-term fixes: The need for a long-term vision

As Kerala grapples with the challenges posed by Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad, it is clear that short-term fixes are no longer enough. The situation calls for a long-term, integrated policy approach that balances development with ecological preservation. The policies must focus not only on immediate flood control but on ecosystem restoration, sustainable agriculture and climate adaptation.

This requires cross-disciplinary cooperation, strong governance and the involvement of local communities in decision-making.

With the right policy interventions, Kuttanad can evolve from a region plagued by environmental degradation to a model for sustainable wetland management in India. However, this will only happen if there is a concerted effort from the government, the private sector and local communities to work together towards shared sustainability goals.

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