From the ancient varna system of India, which rigidly structured society into hierarchical castes, to the Jim Crow South in North America, where racial segregation and discrimination were institutionalised, the spectre of caste has haunted human societies for centuries. These systems have put up visible and invisible walls of social order, enforcing divisions that perpetuate inequality, marginalising certain groups, and preserving long-standing patterns of discrimination and exclusion.

Through the lens of Isabel Wilkerson’s book, Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents, this commentary seeks to draw a parallel between two of the world’s largest democracies – the United States of America (USA or US) and India – highlighting how this covert social framework continues to shape contemporary politics.

In her critically acclaimed book, Wilkerson presents a compelling argument that caste, rather than race, forms the underlying structure of systemic inequality in America. She writes that “race, in the United States, is the visible agent of the unseen force of caste,” and believes that “caste is the powerful infrastructure that holds each group in its place.” Her analysis extends beyond the American context, offering an angle through which we can examine other democracies where caste-like systems perpetuate hierarchies of power and privilege.

Wilkerson is an African-American journalist and the author of the famous work The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America's Great Migration. She is the first woman of African-American heritage to win the Pulitzer Prize in journalism.

Wilkerson’s examination of caste has a worldwide significance as many or similar systems of discrimination resembling the ‘caste system’ exist outside the geographical confines of the United States.

India, regarded as the origin of the caste system, offers a particularly vivid comparison. While Wilkerson does not directly reference India, her insights resonated significantly with the social and political forces that have influenced contemporary Indian democracy. The emergence of Donald Trump in the United States and Narendra Modi in India can be interpreted through a common lens of caste-related fears, alleged majoritarian suffering, and manipulated interpretations of historical grievances.

Wilkerson contends that caste in India and racial hierarchy in the United States operate as analogous systems of inflexible social stratification intended to sustain inequality. Both are deeply embedded in societal frameworks, allocating individuals a preordained status based on unchangeable characteristics such as birth or skin colour.

The system defines and devises processes of filtration through methods such as endogamy and segregation, dehumanising those who are at the bottom, and flourishing through their economic exploitation. Even with legal reforms, the legacy of these hierarchies persists as inequality becomes normalised and is continued through cultural practices, subconscious cues, and systemic obstacles.

Wilkerson emphasises the fundamental logic shared by both systems: they function by disguising discrimination as something natural and unavoidable, rendering their inequities subtle and challenging to dismantle. By making this compelling comparison, she urges readers to face the ongoing structural disparities in their societies and to adopt ‘radical empathy’ as a means to liberate themselves from these profoundly established frameworks.

“Politics is where caste comes to the surface, where the past intercedes with the present to hold us captive to the hierarchy of centuries ago.”

Wilkerson presents the idea of radical empathy as a powerful means to break down systemic hierarchies and injustices that are entrenched in caste systems. Radical empathy transcends superficial understanding, necessitating individuals to actively participate in the experiences, emotions, and histories of others. It requires not only empathy for others but also taking significant actions to confront inequalities, educate oneself, and face uncomfortable realities.

Central to this concept is the acknowledgement of one’s own privileges, biases, and involvement in sustaining systemic oppression. By cultivating profound connections and solidarity across divides, radical empathy functions as a potent remedy to the rigid barriers imposed by caste.

Wilkerson, here, urges people to act by encouraging them to move beyond passive recognition and take an active role in creating a more just and inclusive society.

The historical roots of caste: America and India

Wilkerson traces the beginnings of America’s caste system to the inception of slavery, which established a racial hierarchy that continues to exist today. “Slavery,” she writes, “was not merely an unfortunate thing that happened to Black people. It was an American innovation that created a bottom rung for the new social order.”

This bottom rung became the foundation of systemic oppression, reflected in laws, customs, and unwritten rules designed to segregate and subordinate all groups except Saxons and Nordics, with African Americans bearing the brunt of this discrimination more than any other group.

In India, the caste system is thought to have originated and solidified as a societal norm long before the Mughal and colonial influence, grounded in the Vedic varna system, which partitioned society into hierarchical groups. Over the centuries, this structure became progressively rigid, institutionalising untouchability and other manifestations of discrimination in both religious and social practices.

Wilkerson’s remark that “caste is insidious and wears the mask of normalcy” accurately highlights the pervasive existence of caste in modern India, where discrimination has evolved into more subtle manifestations, like being excluded from workplaces and educational institutions, among numerous other peculiarities.

In both places, systems are supported by what Wilkerson refers to as ‘the pillars of caste’: divine will, heredity, and dehumanisation. In America, the narrative of white superiority was rationalised by pseudo-scientific theories and religious beliefs. In India, Manusmriti and other ancient texts offered a theological foundation for caste hierarchies, depicting lower castes as fundamentally impure.

The rhetoric of victimhood: Trump and Modi

Both Trump and Modi effectively took advantage of a disgruntled feeling of loss among dominant social groups – the white majority in America and the upper-caste Hindus in India –who are very often worried that their social and economic status was being threatened. This feeling of ‘majoritarian victimhood’ stems from deep-rooted caste-based anxieties, in which dominant groups ironically perceive threats from policies aimed at uplifting historically marginalised communities.

“The dominant caste benefits by making their position seem natural, inevitable, and even divine, shielding themselves from challenge and perpetuating their hold on power.”

One of Wilkerson’s most striking insights is that caste hierarchies are especially susceptible to challenges posed by progress. She propounds that the election of Barack Obama as America’s first Black president exemplified such a challenge. “The election of Obama was a psychic break for some Americans, an affront to the natural order.”

This reaction generated a conducive environment for Trump’s ascent, as he portrayed himself as a defender of the wronged white majority while his rhetoric, filled with slogans like ‘Make America Great Again,’ added a nostalgic image of foregone white supremacy and wealth.

In India, Narendra Modi’s ascension followed a similar trajectory. The Congress party’s purported focus on secularism and affirmative action – although often criticised for lacking genuine commitment – fostered resentment among upper-caste Hindus. This group felt alienated by policies that appeared to disproportionately benefit lower castes and minorities.

Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) effectively capitalised on this sentiment, positioning him as a leader who would restore Hindu dignity and dismantle the alleged minority appeasement policies of his predecessors.

Modi’s discourse frequently references historical grievances, depicting Hindus as victims of centuries of Muslim governance and British colonial rule. This narrative has been reinforced by symbolic acts such as the building of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya, Ghar Wapsi (the return of Hindus who converted to other faiths generations ago), the alteration of history books to highlight Hindu heroes in a new perspective, anti-cow slaughter regulations, Hindu Rashtra slogans, and so on.

The concept of ‘othering’ serves as a powerful political strategy, often used to consolidate majoritarian power by portraying others as threats to the existence of the majority.

Donald Trump and Narendra Modi are two leaders who have effectively employed this formula, targeting backward communities and minorities to unify their core support bases. For Trump, the targets are African Americans, Latinos, and immigrants, while Modi focuses on Muslims, portraying them as threats to India's Hindu identity. Their narratives are reinforced by historical grievances and fears that strategically amplify and evoke a sense of victimhood among the majority.

These strategies, while polarising the society, come to play the role of reassurance with a significant portion of the Hindu populace, like how Trump’s appeals to ‘build the wall’ connected with white Americans concerned about immigration.

Wilkerson’s observation that “dominant castes see the advancement of others as a threat to their own status” captures the psychological dynamics at work with people in both places. For Trump supporters, the perceived decline of white privilege served as a rallying point. For Modi supporters, the strengthening of a Hindu identity provided a means to reassert dominance in a diverse society.

Again, Modi’s policies, such as the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and the revocation of Article 370 – which stripped Jammu and Kashmir of its special status – should be understood as efforts to reinforce Hindu dominance, favouring the majority while marginalising Muslims.

Both Trump and Modi have skilfully invoked historical narratives of victimhood to rally support among their base. Both have enacted policies that directly reflect their base’s caste anxieties.

The role of media in sustaining caste narratives

Wilkerson draws a lot of attention to the role of media in preserving caste hierarchies. She observes that “the stories we tell ourselves about who we are reinforce the caste system we live in.” In the United States, media portrayals of African Americans as criminals and welfare devourers have long sustained racial stereotypes. Trump exploited these narratives, framing immigrants and minorities as threats to white Americans’ safety and prosperity.

“The hierarchy of caste is not about feelings or morality. It is about power – which groups have it and which do not.”

In India, the media has similarly played a role in amplifying Hindu-Muslim divisions. Television debates often frame Muslims as a singular threat, while Bollywood has been criticised for its stereotypical portrayals of Muslims as villains. Social media platforms have become battlegrounds for propaganda, with WhatsApp in particular being used to spread misinformation, and more so during elections.

The BJP’s control over the narrative is further bolstered by its influence over mainstream media. Journalists critical of Modi’s policies have faced harassment, while media outlets supportive of the government enjoy preferential treatment. This mirrors Trump’s approach to the press, where he labelled critical outlets as ‘fake news’ and cultivated a loyal media base through platforms like Fox News, Newsmax, OAN Plus and so on.

The alleged loss of credibility of the mainstream media in the US has also been contrasted by the rise of a parallel media stream – including social media and podcasters – that reports ‘what the mainstream does not.’ In fact, the Trump Administration new press secretary has opened up the White House briefings to Tik Tokers and podcasters.

The media has been instrumental in maintaining and enhancing divisive narratives in societies across the world. The conservative media in the United States and pro-government networks in India have negatively portrayed marginalised groups while characterising dissent as unpatriotic.

Social media platforms have additionally intensified these divisions, turning them into instruments for disseminating misinformation and hate speech. The manipulation of media has not only advanced the agenda of polarisation but also reinforced hierarchies and anxieties to serve the political purposes of respective leaders.

Resistance and the fight for equality

While caste hierarchies have shown remarkable resilience, they have also faced sustained resistance. In the United States, the Civil Rights Movement dismantled legal discrimination, though the underlying caste structure remained intact. In India, social reformers like Dr B R Ambedkar, Ayyankali, Narayana Guru, Jyotirao Phule, and Periyar challenged the caste system, advocating for equality and justice.

Wilkerson highlights the importance of such resistance, writing, “the only way to dismantle caste is to see it for what it is and challenge its very foundation.”

Ambedkar’s fight for Dalit rights, the greatest of which comes as the drafting of India’s constitution, represents a significant milestone in this struggle. Yet, as Wilkerson warns, “caste is not a relic of the past but a current condition that we live with.” Persisting discrimination against Dalits – be it political, cultural, and economic marginalisation – as well as exclusion from elite institutions and digital platforms, remains evident even today.

In both countries, grassroots movements have emerged to challenge caste dynamics. The Black Lives Matter protests in the United States and the Self-Respect Movement, Satyashodhak Samaj, SNDP Yogam and several land rights movements stand for justice and equality. In a similar vein, the recent anti-CAA protests in India can also be viewed as part of this larger struggle for social justice, seeking to dismantle discriminatory practices and uphold the values of equality and inclusion.

Wilkerson’s concept of ‘radical empathy’ as a tool for dismantling caste offers a hopeful framework for movements that aim to disband the social evil of caste-class structures.

Global implications: Caste beyond borders

Wilkerson argues that caste is a universal phenomenon. “Wherever there is a ranking of human value, there is a caste system.” This understanding takes it beyond the United States and India, as caste-like systems are present in societies all over the world. In Europe, how Roma communities are treated reflects similar dynamics of dehumanisation and exclusion. In South Africa, apartheid operated for long as a state-sanctioned caste system.

The evil of caste underscores the need for collective global action, feels Wilkerson. As she writes in her conclusion, “we are not personally responsible for the world we inherit, but we are responsible for how we act in it.”  This call to action is as relevant in India and America as it is elsewhere.

Toward a more inclusive future

In her book, Wilkerson sheds light on the concealed framework of inequality in America, providing a perspective to comprehend the interactions of power and privilege in other democracies. The emergence of Donald Trump and Narendra Modi highlights the persistent influence of caste as a social framework, capable of adjusting to contemporary scenarios while continuing to uphold historical injustices.

One might reasonably hold that Donald Trump’s ascent is closely tied to the underlying issues of race and class in America, which Wilkerson unquestionably describes as a ‘caste system.’

While it is challenging to attribute Narendra Modi’s rise exclusively to the caste system, it undeniably is a factor that has influenced his political rise. Modi’s ascent can be seen as a reaction to the intricacies that caste dynamics can vividly illustrate in India, particularly the animosity that some upper-caste Hindus always harboured towards caste-based reservation policies intended to uplift lower castes and minorities.

Several social analysts in India contend that the obstacle of preserving unity within the larger caste-ridden Hindu community on the substantial loss of opportunities brought about by the Mandal Commission Report’s implementation—reserving a significant number of public positions for backward classes—added to the sudden increase in the scale of marginalisation of Muslims, engendering a sense of ‘othering’ in the process.

Both Trump and Modi presented themselves as opponents of political correctness, constructing narratives that resonated with their respective majorities. Trump characterised liberal conversations about privilege, multiculturalism, and gender equality as mere distractions, whereas Modi reframed secularism as a means of appeasing minorities.

These approaches effectively appealed to voters who felt marginalised or overlooked by changing social dynamics, providing them with a renewed feeling of empowerment.

In spite of their commitments to greatness and rejuvenation, both leaders predominantly fell short in implementing significant economic reforms that led to social transformation. Trump’s earlier policies mainly favoured the affluent, while Modi’s economic initiatives, such as demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax (GST), disrupted small enterprises and left many in distress.

However, symbolic triumphs – like Trump’s immigration policies or the building of the Ram Temple under Modi’s guidance – assisted in maintaining their followers’ unflinching loyalty, highlighting the lasting influence of symbolisms in harnessing political dominance and control.

The legacy of divisive politics emphasises the risks associated with majoritarianism and the wider societal effects of ‘othering.’ By leveraging insecurities and exacerbating social divides, such tactics not only transform political terrains but also sustain structural inequalities and tensions.

Addressing these challenges requires confronting uncomfortable truths about privilege, power, and the hierarchies that sustain them, paving the way for a more inclusive and equitable future. Yet, as Wilkerson reminds us, the fight against caste is not hopeless. Through radical empathy, historical reckoning, and collective action, societies can begin to dismantle the hierarchies that divide us.

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